American Society Of Agricultural Engineers Research Articles

Performance Evaluation of Micro-Irrigation Systems in Coconut Plantations

Most of the coconut farmers in Sri Lanka are reluctant to adopt micro-irrigation systems, complaining about low performance. A field study was conducted to verify the claim. The performance was evaluated in two subunits at the inlet and distal end of two micro-irrigation systems with drippers and mini sprayers. The subunit at the inlet of the system with drippers showed a fair Emission Uniformity (78%) and all other tested subunits in both systems showed poor Emission Uniformity, falling below the 70% threshold set by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers. In the drip irrigation system, the increase of Emission Uniformity in the subunit at the distal end was approximately 33%. The increase of Emission Uniformity in all subunits of both systems was 4-6% after replacing the emitters with new emitters. The system with drippers showed severe clogging risk and the system with mini sprayers showed minor clogging risk. Despite the water being in the low clogging risk category, the mini sprayer exhibited the highest percent weight reduction (2%) after washing to remove clogging substances. The coefficient of manufacturer’s variation of the new drippers was in the marginal category of the classification. The Emitter Flow Variation of all the subunits were unacceptable level (>25%) with the existing drippers and mini sprayers. Only the subunit at the inlet of the drip irrigation system showed acceptable Emitter Flow Variation with new emitters. This study revealed that the low performance in both systems was due to emitter clogging and poor hydraulic design.

Investigation of mechanical properties of cotton stalk based on multi-component analyses

1. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2017. Compression test of food materials of convex shape. Google Scholar

Design and Development of Smart Irrigation System for Watering Rooftop Garden

Rooftop gardening is one of the famous agricultural technology in urban areas of many countries including Bangladesh. Crop water requirement is very high in rooftop due to high temperature and high evapotranspiration. Irrigation as well as water management is the major limitation for this practice. Considering the necessity of rooftop gardening in urban areas and irrigation issue, it is essential to develop a low cost efficient irrigation method that helps to improve production techniques for rooftop garden. From this study, we developed a smart irrigation system for watering rooftop gardening where mainly used programmable digital timer, solenoid valve and electric pump operated drip system. In this irrigation system, programmable digital timer sends a signal to the solenoid valve and electric pump that leads to open or close the whole irrigation system and crop was watered the selected interval and frequency wise. From the results, average discharge (Qavg), distribution efficiency (Ed), application efficiency (Ea), coefficient of variation for emitter flow (cv) and statistical uniformity coefficient (SUC) were achieved good performance and was found meeting American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) standards. The designed smart irrigation system was operated excellently as the values of emission uniformity.

Evaluation of performance of household solar cookers

Household solar cookers were evaluated according to ASAE (American Society of Agricultural Engineers) Standard S580.1 – Testing and Reporting Solar Cooker Performance. Per ASAE S580.1, standardized cooking power at a temperature difference of 50 °C between ambient air and cooking vessel water temperatures (±95% confidence interval) was 198 (±32) W for a parabolic-type cooker, 65 (±12) W for a box-type cooker, and 25 (±9) W for a panel-type cooker. ASAE S580.1 specifies standardized cooking power as a single measure of performance, and additional measures of performance, including thermal efficiency and water heating times, were evaluated. The issue of water evaporation was examined. Clarifications for ASAE S580.1 wind velocity specification are recommended. ASAE S580.1 is specified as a normative reference in the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 19867–1:2018 standard for laboratory testing of cookstoves, and a specified deviation for average wind velocity, ≤1.5 m/s, is based on recommendations from this study and concurrence from other ISO working group experts.

Concrete Silos: Failures, Design Issues and Repair/Strengthening Methods

The review article investigated failure, design issues, repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) silos, primarily in agricultural set-ups. The durability of RC structures was influenced by the nature of the bulk solids, materials used in the reinforcement of the structures. Traditionally, high-grade steel has been used in silo wall reinforcement because it is affordable and readily available. However, it is susceptible to corrosion. In contrast, fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP) have better mechanical properties (tensile strength, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio) and are not corroded. Additionally, there are limited scalable and facile methods for commercial production. The low ductility elevates the risk of brittle fracture in external pre-stressing concrete repair/strengthening. Beyond the material factors, the existing silo design codes such as BS EN 1991-4:2006, Australian Standard AS 3774-1996, and American Society of Agricultural Engineers ANSI/ASAE EP433 DEC1988 (R2011), and American Concrete Institute ACI 313-97 are limited by simplified characterization of loading/unloading scenarios and exclusion of specific hopper geometries and configurations. The funnel and mass flow scenarios and accumulation of bulk materials contribute to silo failure. In brief, the present repair/strengthening strategies (external pre-stressing, insertion/removal of inserts, shear columns, and FRPs alternatives to steel) do not adequately address the diverse variables that elevate the risk of material failure.

Evaluation of dynamic uniformity and application efficiency of mobile drip irrigation

Irrigation uniformity, application efficiency and seasonal irrigation uniformity of mobile drip irrigation (MDI) were compared to those of low elevation spray application (LESA) and low energy precision application (LEPA). A center pivot fitted with two sets of MDI (with dripper flow rates of 3.8 L/h and 7.6 L/h), LESA and LEPA was used in this study. Irrigation uniformity tests were conducted in accordance with the American Society of Agricultural Engineers’ standards. Application efficiency was computed as the ratio of depth of water retained in the root zone to that applied. Potential differences in season-long irrigation uniformity were evaluated by analysis of periodically acquired aerial vegetative index data. The coefficient of uniformity of the 3.8 L/h and 7.6 L/h MDI was 93.8% and 93.7%, respectively, and 95.1% for LEPA, and 83.8% for LESA. Application efficiencies for the 3.8 L/h and 7.6 L/h MDI, LEPA and LESA were 76.1, 96.8, 98.4 and 51.2%, respectively. There were no significant differences (p value = 0.5749) in the amount of water stored in the soil profile between MDI, LESA and LEPA, 72 h after irrigation. For three irrigation capacities of 6.2, 3.1 and 1.6 mm/day, there were no significant differences in mean seasonal Advanced Difference Vegetative Index (ADVI) between MDI, LESA and LEPA, with p value = 0.987, 0.999 and 0.999, respectively. A similar observation was made for Normalized Difference Vegetative Index, with p value = 0.998, 0.999 and 0.999, for MDI, LESA and LEPA, respectively. Higher coefficient of uniformity and higher application efficiency for MDI and LEPA indicate that they were more efficient than LESA. These results show that MDI can adapt the high efficiency of traditional drip irrigation to center pivot systems.

Analysis of the influence of selected factors on natural greenhouse ventilation

In greenhouses, in order to maintain proper indoor air temperature, during the period of high values of solar radiation intensity, shading treatments using thermal screens and ventilation are applied. The research was carried out in a mono-span greenhouse in order to determine the effectiveness of natural ventilation. The object of analysis is a greenhouse with a thermal screen installed inside. The tests were carried out during the summer days. The effect of the research was to determine the ventilation air flow through the vents of the greenhouse on the basis of measurements and calculation analyzes. The dependence of the air flow on the windward and leeward side was determined from the wind speed and the temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor air. On the basis of calculations made from observation during shading of the cultivated area and with open ventilators, the coefficients of air exchange per unit floor area of the greenhouse were determined. It was established that at a wind speed exceeding 0.8 m/s, the air exchange rate in the tested greenhouse exceeds the value recommended by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers of 0.04 m3/(s.m2).

Effect of soil, machine, and working state parameters on the required draft force of a subsoiler using a theoretical draft-calculating model

One of the most important soil degradation agents in agriculture is compaction. To rehabilitate compacted fields, farmers usually use subsoilers to break compacted layers. Moreover, the required draft force of a subsoiler dictates the amount of energy needed to operate it. Therefore, measurement, calculation or prediction of the draft force of this machine is vital for designing an efficient subsoiler. In the present study, an analytical model was developed to calculate the subsoiler draft force. To verify the model developed herein, model outputs regarding the draft force of a subsoiler were compared with corresponding results from the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) standard, as well as the results of literature studies. Moreover, the output of the model was compared with the measured draft force of subsoiling a silty clay loam soil. Furthermore, the results obtained regarding the quantitative effect of model inputs on the draft force of a subsoiler were checked from the viewpoint of compatibility with the expected trends or observed results in other studies. The data obtained from the developed model were compatible with those of the ASAE standard. Moreover, the draft force of a single-shank subsoiler was almost 10 kN, which is approximately 14% higher than the result obtained by the model (8.73 kN). Therefore, the model developed herein can be used to calculate the subsoiler draft force with reasonable accuracy. Of the machine parameters, subsoiler wingspan had an adverse effect on the specific draft of this machine. Moreover, for the range of working depths between 30 and 50cm, the minimum values of specific draft took place.

Silo Design Codes: Their Limits and Inconsistencies

In order to structurally design a silo, an engineer must determine all loads that are likely to be applied to it. These include, among others, wind, seismic, external, and loads induced by the stored bulk solid. Numerous codes and standards specify means to calculate the latter (so-called solids-induced loads). Among them, the four most common in use in the world today are:•British Standard BS EN 1991-4:2006 “Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures – Part 4: Silos and Tanks”•American Concrete Institute ACI 313-97 “Standard practice for design and construction of concrete silos and stacking tubes for storing granular materials”•American Society of Agricultural Engineers ANSI/ASAE EP433 DEC1988 (R2011) “Loads exerted by free-flowing grain on bins”•Australian Standard AS 3774-1996 “Loads on bulk solids containers”Unfortunately, guidance to the user is inconsistent between these codes. In addition, many common silo design conditions are not covered by any of them.A brief description of each of these codes, their limitations, and common design conditions that are not covered are identified. Users of silo codes will find this information invaluable, as will code writers who will benefit by being given direction as to how to improve their codes to make them more useful.

Theoretical and Experimental Comparison of Box Solar Cookers with and without Internal Reflector

Box solar cookers are commonly built with internal sheet metal painted black as an absorber. In order to increase the performance, a design which incorporates internal reflection is proposed in this paper. The aim of this paper is to report comparisons made between box solar cookers with and without internal reflector. Theoretical modelling of the two types of cookers has been made by considering the radiation, convection and conduction heat transfer employing the thermal network method. The theoretical analysis made was based on steady state heat transfer analysis of the cookers. Experimental comparisons were also made on two cookers having the same aperture area and made from the same type of materials except the internal absorber. The tests were made as per the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) procedure.The result of the theoretical analysis predicts that the performance will be higher in the cooker with internal reflector than the same cooker without reflector. The steady state analysis shows that for the cooker with reflection the temperature of the bottom absorber plate is higher than the cooker without reflector. Similarly, results of dry test and water boiling test show better performance by the cooker with reflector. The standard stagnation temperature and the cooking power were higher in the cooker with reflector as compared to the cooker without reflector. In conclusion, the performance of box solar cookers can be enhanced by making appropriate angle side walls of the absorber and providing internal reflection.

Droplet size classification of air induction flat fan nozzles

Abstract Measurements were made of the droplet size for a series of air induction flat fan nozzles produced by Marian Mikołajczak Agro Technology (MMAT) and Coorstek. The MMAT nozzles, according to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard sizes, are typical single jet (long body, 37 mm) with 025, 03, and 04 orifice sizes; (short body, 21 mm) with 02, 025, 03 and 04 orifice sizes; and twin jet (short body, 21 mm) with 03 and 04 orifice sizes. Ceramic air induction flat fan nozzles of the Albuz AVI series (Coorstek, France) with the orifice size 01, 02 and 03 were tested. The sprays were described using the following droplet size parameters: Dv10, Dv50, Dv90, relative span (RS), spray volume (%) in size fractions < 100 μm and 100÷200 μm. The sprays were also classified according to American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) standard S572.1 (ASAE 2009).

Simulation of phosphine flow in vertical grain storage: a preliminary numerical study

To fumigate grain stored in a silo, phosphine gas is distributed by a combination of diffusion and fan-forced advection. This initial study of the problem mainly focuses on the advection, numerically modelled as fluid flow in a porous medium. We find satisfactory agreement between the flow predictions of two Computational Fluid Dynamics packages, Comsol and Fluent. The flow predictions demonstrate that the highest velocity ($>0.1$\,m/s) occurs less than $0.2$\,m from the inlet and reduces drastically over one metre of silo height, with the flow elsewhere less than $0.002$\,m/s or $1$\% of the velocity injection. The flow predictions are examined to identify silo regions where phosphine dosage levels are likely to be too low for effective grain fumigation. References K. Bullen, Insect control in stored grain, Technical report , DPIandF, Plant Science, Toowoomba, Queensland, 2007. http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/26_6263.htm J. Canchun, D. W. Sun, and C. Cao, Computer simulation of temperature changes in a wheat storage bin, Journal of Stored Products Research , 37 , 165--177, 2001. doi:10.1016/S0022-474X(00)00017-5 P. J. Collins, G. J. Daglish, M. K. Nayak, P. R. Ebert, D. Schlipalius, W. Chen, H. Pavic, T. M. Lambkin, R. Kopittke, and B. W. Bridgeman, Combating resistance to phosphine in Australia, Proc. Int. Conf. Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Stored Products , Executive Printing Services, 593--607, 2001. http://www.ftic.info/CAFSITE/CAFPDF/60.pdf Comsol (2008). Comsol multiphysics user's guide. http://www.comsol.com P. W. Flinn and C. Reed, Effects of outside air temperature on movement of phosphine gas in concrete elevator bins, Proceedings of the International Conference on Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Stored Products , 704--706, 2008. Fluent, Ansys inc. http://www.ansys.com A. K. Singh and G. R. Thorpe, A solution procedure for three-dimensional free convective flow in peaked bulks of grain, Journal of Stored Products Research , 29 , 221--235, 1993. doi:10.1016/0022-474X(93)90004-N E. A. Smith, D. S. Jayas, and A. D. Ville, Modelling the flow of carbon dioxide through beds of cereal grains, Transport in Porous Media , 44 , 123--144, 2001. doi:10.1023/A:1010760508392 E. A. Smith and D. S. Jayas, Modeling the movement of fumigant gas within grain beds, American Society of Agricultural Engineers , 44(3) , 661--667, 2001. http://asae.frymulti.com S. Xu, D. S. Jayas, N. D. G. White, and W. E. Muir, Momentum-diffusive model for gas transfer in granular media, Journal of Stored Products Research , 38 , 455--462, 2002. doi:10.1016/S0022-474X(01)00048-0

Retracted: HYDRO‐SORTING OF APPLE USING TERMINAL VELOCITY IN WATER

Retracted: The following article from Journal of Food Process Engineering, “Hydro‐sorting of Apple Using Terminal Velocity in Water” by Kamran Kheiralipour, Ahmad Tabatabaeefar, Hossein Mobli, Shahin Rafiee, Ali Rajabipour, and Ali Jafari published online on 22 February 2010 in Wiley Online Library (http://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com), has been retracted by agreement between the authors, the Journal's Co‐Editors, M. Elena Castell‐Perez and Rosana Moreira, and Wiley Periodicals, Inc. The retraction has been agreed due to overlap between this article and the following article published in the Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (now called Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers), “Sorting of Kiwifruit for Quality Using Drop Velocity in Water” by Robert B. Jordan and Christopher J. Clark. Vol. 47:6 (2004): 1991–1998.

Effect of dietary crude protein on ammonia-N emission measured by herd nitrogen mass balance in a freestall dairy barn managed under farm-like conditions

The main objective of this experiment was to monitor the impact of barn side and dietary crude protein (CP) on production performance, manure production and composition, and ammonia nitrogen (N) emission from a lactating dairy herd housed in a free-stall barn and managed under farm-like conditions throughout a number of months in each season of the year. The 78-cow lactating herd of the University of Wisconsin-Platteville (USA) was halved and each group was allocated to either the north or south side of the barn and either a recommended (REC) diet with 16.7 ± 1.3% CP dry matter basis (DM) or an excess (EXC) CP diet containing 1.5 units of CP above the REC diet (18.2 ± 1.5%). In 7 months between February 2004 and January 2005, total manure collection was conducted by manual scraping of the alleys and ammonia-N emission was calculated as intake N + bedding N – milk N – scraped manure N. Side of the barn (northern v. southern exposure) did not influence measurements and there was no effect of dietary CP on dry matter intake (DMI), milk, milk fat, and milk protein production, but a lower manure N concentration was observed for the group of cows fed the REC diet compared with the EXC diet (3.43% v. 3.66% of DM). Nitrogen intake was 63 g/day lower (643 v. 706 g/day), milk N was unaffected (157 g/day), manure N was 32 g/day lower (391 v. 423 g/day), and ammonia-N emission was 34 g/day lower (93 v. 127 g/day) for the group consuming the REC diet compared with the group consuming the EXC diet. There were larger variations in measured responses among months of the year than between level of dietary CP. Wet and dry manure excretions tended to be higher, but manure pH was reduced when corn silage became unavailable and the diet included additional corn grain and alfalfa silage as the only forage source. Prediction of manure N excretion for a group of cow determined as N intake – N milk was 9% higher than current prediction equations of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Ammonia-N loss averaged 110 g/day per lactating cow, but ranged from 64 g/day to 178 g/day with no clear seasonal pattern. There was no clear association between barn temperature, manure temperature or manure pH and ammonia-N emission; however, intake N explained 61% of the variation in ammonia-N emission.

Nitrite as undesirable substances in animal feed ‐ Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain

EFSA JournalVolume 7, Issue 4 1017 OpinionOpen Access Nitrite as undesirable substances in animal feed - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)Search for more papers by this author European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)Search for more papers by this author First published: 15 April 2009 https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1017Citations: 5 Panel members: Jan Alexander, Diane Benford, Andrew Cockburn, Jean-Pierre Cravedi, Eugenia Dogliotti, Alessandro Di Domenico, Maria Luisa Férnandez-Cruz, Peter Fürst, Johanna Fink-Gremmels, Corrado Lodovico Galli, Philippe Grandjean, Jadwiga Gzyl, Gerhard Heinemeyer, Niklas Johansson, Antonio Mutti, Josef Schlatter, Rolaf van Leeuwen, Carlos Van Peteghem, Philippe Verger. Acknowledgement: The Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain wishes to thank the members of the Working Group on nitrite as undesirable substances in animal feed for the preparation of this opinion: Gianfranco Brambilla, Andrew Cockburn, Bruce Cottrill, María Luisa Fernández- Cruz and Carlos Van Peteghem. Adoption date: 25 March 2009 Published date: 15 April 2009 Question number: EFSA-Q-2005-287 AboutPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists), 1995. AOAC official methods of analysis, 16th ed., Virginia, USA, 938– 940. Andrade R, Viana CO, Guadagnin SG, Reyes FGR and Rath S, 2003. A flow-injection spectrophotometric method for nitrate and nitrite determination through nitric oxide generation. Food Chemistry 80, 597– 602. Archer DB, 1985. Uncoupling of Methanogenesis from Growth of Methanosarcina barkeri by Phosphate Limitation. Appl Environ Microbiol 50 (5), 1233– 1237. Atef M, Abo-Norage MA, Hanafy MS and Agag AE, 1991. Pharmacotoxicological aspects of nitrate and nitrite in domestic fowls. Br Poult Sci. 32 (2), 399– 404. Balimandawa M, Demeester C and Leonard A, 1993. In-vitro evaluation of the clastogenic properties of nitrites and nitrates. Comptes rendus des seances de la Societe de Biologie et de ses filiales 187 (6), 744– 750. Baranova M, Mala P and Burdova O, 1993. Transport of nitrates and nitrites into the milk of dairy cows through the digestive system. Veterinarni Medicina 38 (10), 581– 588. Baranova M, Mala P, Burdova O and Zezula I, 1999. Influence of long-term nitrate exposure on calves. Bulletin of the Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy 43 (1), 77– 83. Baranova M, Jackova A, Mala P, Burdova O and Zezula I, 2000. Methemoglobin levels in blood and transrenal passage of nitrates and nitrites in calves. Bulletin of the Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy 44, 73– 78. Baranova M, Mal'a P, Burdova O, Jackova A and Zezula I, 2001. The influence of the nitrate load on the accumulation of nitrates and nitrites in slaughter poultry. Folia Veterinaria 45 (3), 157– 159. Bartholomew B and Hill MJ, 1984. The pharmacology of dietary nitrate and origin of urinary nitrate. Food Chem. Toxicol. 22, 789– 795. Bartik M and Piskac A, 1981. Veterinary Toxicology. Elsevier Amsterdam, 346 pp. Bath RN and Eddy FB, 1980. Transport of nitrite across fish gills. J Exp Zool 214 (1), 119– 121. Bazzara LG, Velez ML, Costamagna ME, Cabanillas AM, Fozzatti L, Lucero AM, Pellizas CG and Masini-Repiso AM, 2007. Nitric oxide/cGMP signaling inhibits TSH-stimulated iodide uptake and expression of thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin mRNA in FRTL-5 thyroid cells. Thyroid 17 (8), 717– 727. Berende PL, 1977. Dynamic and kinetic aspects of nitrate in rations for milk-fed calves. ILOB Reports 430– 430a. Boink ABTJ, Beekhof PK, Te Biesebeek JD, Timmerman A, Elvers LH, Dormans JAMA and Vleeming W, 1998. On the etiology of nitrite-induced hypertrophy of the zona glomerulosa of rats: III. Effect of combined administration of nitrite and an ACE inhibitor. Report No. 235802013 from the National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands. Bradley WB, Eppson HF and Beath OA, 1940. Methylene blue as an antidote for poisoning by oat hay and other plants containing nitrates. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 96, 41– 42. Bruning-Fann CS and Kaneene JB, 1993. The effects of nitrate, nitrite, and N-nitroso compounds on animal health. Vet Hum Toxicol 35 (3), 237– 253. Butt SB, Riaz M and Iqbal MZ, 2001. Simultaneous determination of nitrite and nitrate by normal phase ion-pair liquid chromatography. Talanta 55 (4), 789– 797. Cammack R, Joannou CL, Cui XY, Torres Martinez C, Maraj SR and Hughes MN, 1999. Nitrite and nitrosyl compounds in food preservation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1411 (2–3), 475– 488. Casanova JA, Gross LK, McMullen SE and Schenck FJ, 2006. Use of Griess reagent containing vanadium(III) for post-column derivatization and simultaneous determination of nitrite and nitrate in baby food. Journal of AOAC International 89 (2), 447– 451. Cash D, Funston R, King M and Wichman D, 2007. Nitrate Toxicity of Montana Forages. Available at: animalrangeextension.montana.edu/articles/Forage/General/Nitratetox.htm. Cassens VJ, Luke EM and Hoover PJ, 1997. The National Pesticide Information Retrieval System. Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society 213, 48-CINF. Causeret J, 1984. Nitrates, nitrites, nitrosamines: apports alimentaires et santé. Annales des Falsifications, de l'Expertise Chimique et Toxicologique 77 (826), 133– 151. Chen H, Fang YJ, An TC and Jin XL, 1999. Flow-injection catalytic spectrophotometric determination of trace amounts of nitrite. Analytical Letters 32 (14), 2887– 2897. Clarke EGC and Clarke ML, 1975. Veterinary Toxicology. Balliere Tindall, London. 438 pp. Cooper MR and Johnson AW, 1984. Poisonous Plants in Britain and their effects on Animals and Man. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Reference Book 161. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London. Crowley JW, 1985. Effects of Nitrate on Livestock. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Paper Number 80-20026. Available at www.uwex.edu/ces/forage/pubs/nitrate.htm. Dejam A, Hunter CJ and Gladwin MT, 2007. Effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure. N Engl J Med 356 (15), 1590. Di Matteo V and Esposito E, 1997. Methods for the determination of nitrite by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Journal of Chromatography A 789 (1–2), 213– 219. Djekoun-Bensoltane S, Kammerer M, Larhantec M, Pilet N and Thorin C, 2007. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations in rabbit saliva - Comparison with rat saliva. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 23 (1), 132– 134. Dollahite JW and Rowe LD, 1974. Nitrate and Nitrite Intoxication in Rabbits and Cattle. Southwest Vet. 27, 246– 248. Dougall HT, Smith L, Duncan C and Benjamin N, 1995. The effect of amoxicillin on salivary nitrite concentrations - an important mechanism of adverse reactions. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 39 (4), 460– 462. Duncan C, Dougall H, Johnston P, Green S, Brogan R, Leifert C, Smith L, Golden M and Benjamin N, 1995. Chemical generation of nitric-oxide in the mouth from the enterosalivary circulation of dietary nitrate. Nature Medicine 1 (6), 546– 551. Dykhuizen RS, Frazer R, Duncan C, Smith CC, Golden M, Benjamin N and Leifert C, 1996. Antimicrobial effect of acidified nitrite on gut pathogens: Importance of dietary nitrate in host defense. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40 (6), 1422– 1425. EC (European Commission), 1998. Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption (OJ L 330, 5.12.1998). Available at: eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=iONSLEG:1998L0083:20031120:EN:PDF. EC (European Commission), 2003. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Animal Nutrition on Undesirable Substances in Feed (SCAN), adopted on 20 February 2003, updated on 25 April 2003. Available at: europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scan/out126_bis_en.pdf. Edwards WC and McCoy CP, 1980. Nitrate poisoning in Oklahoma cattle. Veterinary Medicine & Small Animal Clinician 75 (3), 457– 458. EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2008a. Nitrate in vegetables - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food chain. The EFSA Journal 689, 1– 79. Available at: www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1178712852460.htm. EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2008b. Animal welfare aspects of husbandry systems for farmed trout - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Animal Health and Welfare. The EFSA Journal 796, 1– 22. Available at: www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902132105.htm. Eleftheriadou A, Pexara A, Gavriilidou I, Ambrosiadis I, Georgakis S, Politis M and Karanasios I, 2002. Effect of nitrate and nitrite content in water and feed on their presence in the muscle tissue of fattening pigs. Archiv Fur Lebensmittelhygiene 53 (6), 130– 133. EMEA (European Medicines Agency), 2006. Committee for Medicial Products for Veterinary Use. Sodium nitrite summary report. Available at: www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/vet/mrls/sodiumnitrite.pdf. EN 12014–1 1997a. Revision-A1 (1999). Foodstuffs – Determination of nitrate and/or nitrite content – Part 1: General considerations. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). www.cen.eu. EN 12014–2 1997b. Foodstuffs – Determination of nitrate and/or nitrite content – Part 2: HPLC/IC method for the determination of nitrate content of vegetables and vegetable products. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). www.cen.eu. EN 12014–3 2005a. Foodstuffs – Determination of nitrate and/or nitrite content – Part 3: Spectrometric determination of nitrate and nitrite content of meat products after enzymatic reduction of nitrate to nitrite. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). www.cen.eu. EN 12014–4 2005b. Foodstuffs – Determination of nitrate and/or nitrite content – Part 4: Ion-exchange chromatographic (IC) method for the determination of nitrate and nitrite content of meat products. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). www.cen.eu. EN 12014–5 1997c. Foodstuffs – Determination of nitrate and/or nitrite content – Part 5: Enzymatic determination of nitrate content of vegetable-containing food for babies and infants. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). www.cen.eu. EN 12014–7 1998. Foodstuffs – Determination of nitrate and/or nitrite content – Part 7: Continuous flow method for the determination of nitrate content of vegetables and vegetable products after Cadmium reduction. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). www.cen.eu. Ensafi AA and Keyvanfard M, 1994. Selective kinetic spectrophotometric determination of nitrite in food and water. Analytical Letters 27 (1), 169– 182. Ensafi AA and Dehaghei GB, 1999. Ultra-trace analysis of nitrite in food samples by flow injection with spectrophotometric detection. Fresenius Journal of Analytical Chemistry 363 (1), 131– 133. Ensafi AA, Rezaei B and Nouroozi S, 2004. Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of nitrite and nitrate by flow injection analysis. Analytical Sciences 20 (12), 1749– 1753. Fang YJ, Chen H, Gao ZX and Jing XL, 2002. Flow injection determination of nitrite in food samples by dialysis membrane separation and photometric detection. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 82 (1), 1– 6. Fang YJ, Gao ZX, Yan SL, Wang HY and Zhou HY, 2005. A dip-and-read test strip for the determination of nitrite in food samples for the field screening. Analytical Letters 38 (11), 1803– 1811. FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations/World Health Organization), 1962. Evaluation of the toxicity of a number of antimicrobials and antioxidants, Sixth report of the joint FAO/WHO Expert committee on Food Additives, World Health Organization technical report Series nr 228, 69– 75. FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations/World Health Organization), 2003a. Nitrate (and potential endogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds). WHO Food Additive series 50, Geneva: World Health Organisation. Available at: www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v50je06.htm. FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations/World Health Organization), 2003b. Nitrite (and potential endogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds). WHO Food Additive series 50, Geneva: World Health Organisation. Available at: www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v50je05.htm. Fritsch P, Desaintblanquat G and Klein D, 1985. Excretion of nitrates and nitrites in saliva and bile in the dog. Food and Chemical Toxicology 23 (7), 655– 659. Galloway JN, Aber JD, Erisman JW, Seitzinger SP, Howarth RW, Cowling EB and Cosby BJ, 2003. The nitrogen cascade. Bioscience 53 (4), 341– 356. Gangolli SD, Vandenbrandt PA, Feron VJ, Janzowsky C, Koeman JH, Speijers GJA, Spiegelhalder B, Walker R and Wishnok JS, 1994. Nitrate, nitrite and n-nitroso compounds. European Journal of Pharmacology-Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology Section 292 (1), 1– 38. Gao Q, 2002. Uric acid-hexacyanoferrate (III)-luminol chemiluminescence system for the determination of trace nitrite. Chinese Journal of Analytical Chemistry 30 (7), 812– 814. Gao F, Zhang L, Wang L, Shike She S and Zhu C, 2005. Ultrasensitive and selective determination of trace amounts of nitrite ion with a novel fluorescence probe mono[6-N(2-carboxy-phenyl)]-β-cyclodextrin. Analytica Chimica Acta 533 (1), 25– 29. Ghasemi J, Jabbari A, Amini A, Oskoei AG and Abdolahi B, 2004. Kinetic spectrophotometric determination of nitrite based on its catalytic effect on the oxidation of methyl red by bromate. Analytical Letters 37 (10), 2205– 2214. Gladwin MT, Grubina R and Doyle MP, 2009. The new chemical biology of nitrite reactions with hemoglobin: R-state catalysis, oxidative denitrosylation, and nitrite reductase/anhydrase. Acc Chem Res 42 (1), 157– 167. Goelz L, 2002. Toxic Plants and Compounds. Available at: www.pipevet.com/articles/toxicity.htm. Grant RJ and Albright JL, 2000. Feeding behaviour. In: Farm Animal Metabolism and Nutrition. CABI Publishing, JPF D'Mello (Ed.), Wallingford, Oxon, UK, 365– 382. Greene I and Hiatt EP, 1954. Behavior of the nitrate in the dog. Am. J. Physiol. 176 463– 467. Grosell M and Jensen FB, 2000. Uptake and effects of nitrite in the marine teleost fish Platichthys flesus. Aquat Toxicol 50 (1–2), 97– 107. Guillette LJ and Edwards TM, 2005. Is Nitrate an Ecologically Relevant Endocrine Disruptor in Vertebrates? Integr.Comp.Biol. 45 19– 27. Gupta RC, 2007. Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles. Academic Press. ISBN 0123704677, 1201 pp. Haliburton JC and Edwards WC, 1978. Nitrate poisoning in Oklahoma cattle during the winter of 1977–1978. Veterinary & Human Toxicology 20, 401– 403. Hartman PE, 1982. Nitrates and nitrites: ingestion, pharmacodynamics, and toxicology. In: Chemical mutagens. Vol. 7. FJ De Serres and A Hollaender (eds.). Plenum Publishing Co., New York, 211– 294. Harvey JW, 2006. Pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, and clinical implications of erythrocyte enzyme deficiencies in dogs, cats, and horses. Vet Clin Pathol 35 (2), 144– 156. He D, Zhang ZW, Huang Y and Hu Y, 2007. Chemiluminescence microflow injection analysis system on a chip for the determination of nitrite in food. Food Chemistry 101 (2), 667– 672. Hüsler BR and Blum JWB, 2001. Nitrite/Nitrate Responses to Endotoxin in Calves J. Vet. Med. A 48, 487– 500. JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), 1974. 17th report of the joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives WHO Food Additives series n. 5, p 97. Jensen FB, 2003. Nitrite disrupts multiple physiological functions in aquatic animals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 135 (1), 9– 24. Jie N, Yang J and Meng F, 1993. Fluorimetric determination of nitrite. Talanta 40 (7), 1009– 1011. Jie NQ, Yang JH and Li JS, 1994. Fluorometric-determination of nitrite using a new reagent system. Analytical Letters 27, 1001– 1008. Jie N, Yang D, Jiang Q, Zhang Q and Wei L, 1999. A fluorescence quenching method for the determination of nitrite with indole. Microchemical Journal 62 (3), 371– 376. Juszkiewicz T, Kowalski B and Pastucha E, 1980. Occurrence and formation of nitrosamines in animal feeds. In: () N-Nitroso Compounds: Analysis, Formation and Occurrence. W Davis (Ed.), IARC Scientific Publication n. 31 Lyon (F), 589– 594. Kammerer M, Pinault L and Pouliquen H, 1992. Nitrate content in milk - relationship with nitrate level in livestock water sources. Annales De Recherches Veterinaires 23 (2), 131– 138. Kazemzadeh A and Ensafi AA, 2001. Sequential flow injection spectrophotometric determination of nitrite and nitrate in various samples. Analytica Chimica Acta 442, 319– 326. Kazemzadeh A, 2005. Development of new optical nitrite detector. Asian Journal of Chemistry 17 (2), 767– 773. Kazemzadeh A and Daghighi S, 2005. Optical nitrite sensor based on chemical modification of a polymer film. Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc 61 (8), 1871– 1875. Kemp A, Guerink JH, Malestein A and Van't Klooster A, 1978. Grassland Production and nitrate poisoning in cattle. Proceedings of 7th General Meeting European Grassland Federation, Gent. 9.1-9.15. Koch BA, Parrish DB and Sukhonthasarnpa S, 1963. Effects of dietary nitrate and nitrite on growing swine. J. Animal Sci. 22, 840. Koppang N, 1966. A severe progressive liver disease in fur animals. I. Symptoms and organ changes. Nord. Vet.-Med. 18, 205– 209. Koppang N, 1974. Dimethylnitrosamine - formation in fish-meal and toxic effects in pigs. American Journal of Pathology 74 (1), 95– 108. Koupparis MA, Walczak KM and Malmstadt HV, 1982. Determination of nitrite in waters by using a stopped-flow analyzer. Analyst 107, 1309– 1315. Lehman AJ, 1958. Quarterly reports to the editor on topics of current interest. Nitrates and Nitrites in meat products. Quarterly Bulletin of the association of Food and Drug Officers 22, 136– 138. Lewicki J, Wiechetek M, Souffrant WB, Karlik W and Garwacki S, 1998. The fate of nitrogen from 15N-labeled nitrate after single intravenous administration of Na15NO3 in sheep. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 76, 850– 857. Lewis D, 1951. The metabolism of nitrate and nitrite in the sheep. The reduction of nitrate in the rumen of the sheep. Biochem. J. 48, 175– 180. Li JS, Wang H, Zhang X and Zhang HS, 2003. Spectrofluorimetric determination of total amount of nitrite and nitrate in biological sample with a new fluorescent probe 1,3,5,7-tetramethyl-8–(3ä,4ä-diaminophenyl)-difluoroboradiaza-s-indacence. Talanta 61 (6), 797– 802. Liang B, Iwatsuki M and Fukasawa T, 1994. Catalytic spectrophotometric determination of nitrite using the chlorpromazine hydrogen-peroxide redox reaction in acetic-acid. Medium. Analyst 119, 2113– 2117. Lijinsky W, Greenblatt M and Kommineni C, 1973. Brief communication: feeding studies of nitrilotriacetic acid and derivatives in rats. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 50, 1061– 1063. Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E, Cole JA and Benjamin N, 2004. Nitrate, bacteria and human health. Nat.Rev.Microbiol. 2, 593– 602. Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E and Gladwin MT, 2008. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway in physiology and therapeutics. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 7, 156– 157. Maekawa A, Ogiu T, Onodera H, Furuta K, Matsuoka C, Ohno Y and Odashima S, 1982. Carcinogenicity studies of sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate in F-344 rats. Food Chem.Toxicol. 20, 25– 33. MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, UK), 1998. 1997 total diet study – nitrate and nitrite. Food Surveillance Information Sheet 163. Malone P, 1978. Monensin sodium toxicity in cattle. Veterinary Record 103, 477– 478. Marais JP, Therion JJ, Mackie RI, Kistner A and Dennison C, 1988. Effect of nitrate and its reduction products on the growth and activity of the rumen microbial population. Br J Nutr 59 (2), 301– 313. Maric P, Ali SS, Heron LG, Rosenfeld D and Greenwood M, 2008. Methaemoglobinaemia following ingestion of a commonly available food additive. Med J Aust 188 (3), 156– 158. Matteucci O, Diletti G, Prencipe V, Giannatale Ed, Marconi MM and Migliorati G, 2008. Two cases of methemoglobinaemia caused by suspected sodium nitrite poisoning. Veterinaria Italiana 44 (2), 439– 453. McKnight, G., Duncan, C.W., Leifert, C. and Golden, M.H. 1999. Dietary nitrate in man: friend or foe? British Journal of Nutrition 81, 349– 358. McKnight, G., Smith, L.M., Drummond, R.S., Duncan, C.W., Goldem, M.N.H. and Benjamin,N. 1997. The chemical synthesis of nitric oxide in the stomach from dietary nitrate in man. Gut 40, 211– 214. McMullen, S.E., Casanova, J.A., Gross, L.K. and Schenck, F.J. 2005. Ion chromatographic determination of nitrate and nitrite in vegetable and fruit baby foods. Journal of AOAC International 88, 1793– 1796. Mensinga, T.T., Speijers, G.J. and Meulenbelt, J. 2003. Health implications of exposure to environmental nitrogenous compounds. Toxicol.Rev. 22, 41– 51. Merino, L., Edberg, U., Fuchs, G. and Aman, P. 2000. Liquid chromatographic determination of residual nitrite/nitrate in foods: NMKL collaborative study. Journal of AOAC International 83, 365– 375. Michalski, Z. (1963). Morphologic changes in acute and chronic methe-moglobinemia induced by sodium nitrite. Zesz. Nauk. Akad. Roln. Wroclawiu, Weter. 16, 173– 194. Mirvish SS, 1975. Blocking the formation of N-nitroso compounds with ascorbic acid in vitro and in vivo. Ann N Y Acad Sci 258, 175– 180. Mirvish SS, 1975. Formation of N-nitroso compounds: chemistry, kinetics, and in vivo occurrence. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 31 (3), 325– 351. Mirvish SS, Patil K, Ghadirian P and Kommineni VR, 1975. Disappearance of nitrite from the rat stomach: contribution of emptying and other factors. J Natl Cancer Inst 54 (4), 869– 875. Muirhe M and Alexander T, 1997. Poisons: Recognition, Treatment and Control. In: Managing pig health and the treatment of disease. M Muirhe and T Alexander (eds.) 5M Enterprises Limited, Sheffield, UK, 1st ed., 423– 440. National Academy of Science, US, 1981. The health effects of nitrates, nitries and N-nitroso compounds. Part 1 of a two part study by the Committee on Nitrite and Alternative Curing Agents in Food. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. NIOSH (The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, USA), 1987. NIOSH Registry of toxic effects of chemical substances. NTP (National Toxicology Program), 2001. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of sodium nitrite (CAS NO. 7632-00-0) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (drinking water studies). Natl.Toxicol.Program.Tech.Rep.Ser. 495, 7– 273. Ologhobo AD, Adegede HI and Maduagiwu EN, 1996. Occurrence of nitrate, nitrite and volatile nitrosamines in certain feedstuffs and animal products. Nutr Health 11 (2), 109– 114. Osweiler GD, Carson T L, Buck WB and Van Gelder GA, 1985. Clinical and Diagnostic Veterinary Toxicology. 3rd edition, Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 3– 32. Ozmen O, Mor F, Sahinduran S and Unsal A, 2005. Pathological and toxicological investigations of chronic nitrate poisoning in cattle. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry 87, 99– 106. Oztekin N, Nutku MS and Erim FB, 2002. Simultaneous determination of nitrite and nitrate in meat products and vegetables by capillary electrophoresis. Food Chemistry 76, 103– 106. Packer PJ, Leach SA, Duncan SN, Thompson MH and Hill M.J, 1989. The effect of different sources of nitrate exposure on urinary nitrate recovery in humans and its relevance to the methods in estimating nitrate exposure in epidemiological studies. Carcinogenesis (London) 10, 1989– 1996. Robinson PH, 1999. Nitrates and dairy cattle: cause for concern? University of California Cooperative extension. Available at: cetulare.ucdavis.edu/pubdairy/mlaw0198.htm. Rogers PA and Hope-Cawdery MJ, 1980. Monesin, ketosis and nitrate toxicity in cows. Vet Record. 106 (14), 311– 312. Rogers P, 1999. Poisoning in cattle and sheep by urea, nitrates and nitrites: Sources, toxic doses, treatment and prevention. Available at: homepage.eircom.net/~progers/ureanitr.htm. Sakshaug J, Sognen E, Hansen MA and Koppang N, 1965. Dimethylnitrosamine; its hepatotoxic effect in sheep and its occurrence in toxic batches of herring meal. Nature 206, 1261– 1262. Sanchez-Echaniz J, Benito-Fernández J and Mintegui-Raso S, 2001. Methemoglobinemia and consumption of vegetables in infants. Pediatrics 107 (5), 1024– 1028. Savino F, Maccario S, Guidi C, Castagno E, Farinasso D, Cresi F, Silvestro L and Mussa GC, 2006. Methemoglobinemia caused by the ingestion of courgette soup given in order to resolve constipation in two formula-fed infants. Ann.Nutr.Metab. 50, 368– 371. SCF (Scientific Committee for Food), 1992. European Commission – food science and techniques. Reports of the Scientific Committee for Food (twenty-sixth series), 19 October 1990. Nitrates and nitrites, ISBN 92-826-3465-5, 21– 31. SCF (Scientific Committee for Food), 1995. European Commission – food science and techniques. Reports of the Scientific Committee for Food (thirty eighth series), 22 September 1995. Nitrate and nitrite, 5– 33. Schneider NR and Yeary RA, 1975. Nitrite and nitrate pharmacokinetics in dog, sheep, and pony. American Journal of Veterinary Research 36 (7), 941– 947. Schultz DS, Deen WM, Karel SF, Wagner DA and Tannenbaum SR, 1985. Pharmacokinetics of nitrate in humans: role of gastrointestinal absorption and metabolism. Carcinogenesis (London) 6, 847– 852. Seerley RW, Emerick RJ, Embry LB and Olson OE, 1965. Effect of nitrate administered cotinuosly in drinking water for swine and sheep. Journal of Animal Science 24 (4), 1014– 1019. Sell JL and Roberts WK, 1963. Effects of dietary nitrite on the chick: growth, liver vitamin A stores and thyroid weight. Journal of Nutrition 79, 171– 178. Sen NP, Smith DC and Schwinghamer L, 1969. Formation of N-nitrosamines from secondary amines and nitrite in human and animal gastric juice. Food and Cosmetics Toxicology 7, 301– 307. Setchell BP and Williams AJ, 1968. Plasma nitrate and nitrite in chronic and acute nitrate poisoning in sheep. Australian Veterinary Journal 38, 58– 62. Sinclair KB and Jones DIH, 1967. Nitrate toxicity in sheep. Research in Veterinary Science 8, 65– 70. Sinclair K B and Jones DIH, 1967. Nitrite toxicity in sheep. Res.Vet. Sci. 8, 65– 70. Siu DC and Henshall A, 1998. Ion chromatographic determination of nitrate and nitrite in meat products. Journal of Chromatography A 804, 157– 160. Sleight SD, Sinha DP and Uzoukwu M, 1972. Effect of sodium nitrite on reproductive performance of pregnant sows. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 161 (7), 819– 823. Slenning BD, Galey FD and Anderson M, 1991. Forage-related nitrate toxicoses possibly confounded by nonprotein nitrogen and monensin in the diet used at a commercial dairy heifer replacement operation. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 198 (5), 867– 870. Speijers GJA, Van Went GF, Van Apeldoorn ME, Montizaan GK, Janus JA, Canton JH, Van Gestel CAM, van der Heijden CA, Heijna-Merkus E, Knapp AGAC, Luttick R and De Zwart D, 1987 Integrated Criteria document Nitrate Effects. Appendix to RIVM report No. 758473007.Bilthoven. Spiegelhalder B, Eisenbrand G. and Preussmann R, 1976. Influence of dietary nitrate on nitrite content of human saliva: possible relevance to in vivo formation of N-nitroso compounds. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 14, 545– 548. Spoelstra SF, 1985. Nitrate in silage. Grass and Forage Science 40 (1), 1– 11. Spoelstra SF, 1987. Degradation of nitrate by enterobacteria during silage fermentation of grass. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 35 (1), 43– 54. Stalikas CD, Konidari CN and Nanos CG, 2003. Ion chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of nitrite and nitrate by post-column indirect fluorescence detection. Journal of Chromatography A 1002, 237– 241. Stoltenow C and Lardy G, 1998. Nitrate poisoning of livestock. Available at: www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ansci/livestoc/v839w.htm. Stormorken H, 1953. Methemoglobinemia in domestic animals. Proceedings 15th Int. Vet. Congr. Stockholm 1 (Part I; Part II), 501– 506; 269-270. Strickland JR, Spiers DE, Fletcher L, Oliver JW and Aiken GE, 2008. Physiological Basis of Fescue Toxicosis. Tall Fescue On-line Monograph. Available at: forages.oregonstate.edu/is/tfis/book.cfm?pageid=367&chapter=8&section=0/. Svoboda Z, Machova J, Poleszczuc J, Hoda J, Hamaakova J and Kroupova H, 2005. Nitrite Poisoning of Fish in Aquaculture Facilities with Water-recirculating Systems. Acta Vet Brno 74, 129– 137. The Merck Veterinary Manual. 2006. Available at: www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp. Thornton I and Abrahams P, 1983. Soil ingestion - a major pathway of heavy metals into livestock grazing contaminated land. Sci Total Environ 28, 287– 294. Til HP, Kuper CF and Falke HE, 1997. Nitrite-induced adrenal effects in rats and the consequences for the no-observed-effect level. Food Chem.Toxicol. 35, 349– 355. Trif A, Gherdan A, Pârvu D, P$deanu I and P$curar M, 1986. Cercet$ri privind con$inutul în azota$i şi azoti$i în sânge şi lapte la ovine. Lucr. Şt. IAT, vol. XXI, seria Zoot. si MV, 119– 122. Trif A, Pârvu D and Curtui V, 1993. The dynamic of methaemoglobin in sheep in correlation with the level of nitrate and nitrite intake. Lucrari Stiintifice Medicina Veterinara, Timisoara, vol. XXVII, 100– 104. Vallance P, 1997. Dietary nitrate: poison or panacea? Gut. 40, 288. Van Broekhoven LW and Davies JA, 1980. Prevention of artifact formation during the analysis of N-nitrosamines in the rumen fluid of cows. J Agric Food Chem 28 (5), 957– 959. Van Broekhoven LW and Davies JA, 1982. N-nitrosamines in grass silages. IARC Sci Publ (41), 319– 326. Violante A, Cianetti A and Ordine A, 1973. Adrenal cortex function during subacute poisoning with sodium nitrite. Quad Sclavo Diagn 9 (4), 907– 920. Violante A, Nardoni C and Lenza G, 1974. An ultrastructural research of pancreatic islets in sodium nitrite poisoned rabbits (author's transl). Ann Ist Super Sanita 10 (3–4), 171– 177. Vyt P and Spruytte H, 2006. Nitrite intoxication in sows The Veterinary Record, 256. Vyt P, Maes D, Vrielinck J and Castryck F, 2005. Nitrite intoxications in pigs Vlaams Diergeneeskun dig Tijdschrift 74, 359– 363. Waldner DN and Looper ML, 2001. Water for Dairy Cattle.F-4275. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University. Available at: www.ansi/okstate.edu/exten/dairy/wf-4275.html. Walker, R. 1990. Nitrates, nitrites and N-nitrosocompounds: a review of the occurrence in food and diet and the toxicological implications. Food Addit. Contam. 7, 717– 768. Wang LC, Garcia-Rivera J and Burris RH, 1961. Metabolism of nitrate by cattle. Biochem. J. 81, 237– 242. Wendt M, 1985. Symptomatik aktueller Vergiftungen. Der Praktische Tierartz 66, 979– 984. Wehrmann J and Scharpf HC, 1989. Reduction of nitrate leaching in a vegetable farm-fertilization, crop rotation, plant residues. Protection of water quality from harmful emissions with special regard to nitrate and heavy metals. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium of CIEC, 247– 253. WHO (World Health Organization), 2007. Nitrate and nitrite in drinking-water. Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Available at: www.who.int/water_sanitationn_health/dwq/chemicals/nitratenitrite2ndadd.pdf. Williams EM and Eddy FB, 1989. Effect of nitrite on the embryonic-development of Atlantic salmon (Salmo-salar). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46 (10), 1726– 1729. Winter AJ, 1962. Studies on nitrate metabolism in cattle. Am. J. Vet. Res. 23, 500– 505. Witter JP, Balish E and Gatley SJ, 1979a. Distribution of nitrogen-13 from labelled nitrate and nitrite in germfree and conventional-flora rats. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38, 870– 878. Witter JP, Gatley SJ and Balish E, 1979b. Distribution of nitrogen-13 from labelled nitrate (13NO3-) in humans and rats. Science (Washington, D.C.) 204, 411– 413. Woolford MK, 1978. Antimicrobial effects of mineral acids, organic acids, salts and sterilizing agents in relation on their potential as silage additives. J. British Grassland Soc. 33, 131– 136. Worth AJ, Ainsworth SJ, Brocklehurst PJ and Collett MG, 1997. Nitrite poisoning in cats and dogs fed a commercial pet food. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 45, 193– 195. Wright M J and Davison KL, 1964. Nitrate accumulation in crops and nitrate poisoning in animals. In: Advances in Agronomy, Academic Press, Inc., New York, 16, 197– 247. Yanbo W, Zhang W, Li W and Xu Z, 2006. Acute toxicity of nitrite on tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) at different external chloride concentrations. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 32, 49– 54. Yaremcio B, 1991. Nitrate poisoning and feeding nitrate feeds to livestock. Agri-Facts. Agdex 400/ 60-1. Available at: www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex851. Citing Literature Volume7, Issue4April 20091017 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Supplementary heat requirements when brooding tom turkey poults

In this study, the supplementary heat required when brooding turkey poults in winter and summer in the Kahramanmaras region of Turkey was determined using a heat and humidity balance method for a naturally ventilated house with a capacity of 6500 tom turkey poults. In the calculation of heat and humidity balance, temperature values, sensible heat and moisture production of tom turkey poults were taken from the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) standards for corresponding turkey poult weights, and outside long term (1980 - 2005) monthly average temperatures were obtained from a local climate station. The coldest and warmest crucial months were determined as January (6.5 °C) and August (29.2 °C), respectively. When brooding was initiated in the first week of January, supplementary heat was needed for the subsequent five weeks, being 32937, 27028, 21721, 9476 and 5400 W per week, respectively. When brooding started in the first week of August, poults needed only 5544 W supplementary heat. However, tom turkey poults would nevertheless benefit from supplementary heat during this period because they are not yet fully feathered and the digestive system has not yet fully developed.

Evaluation of Solids, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Excretion Models for Lactating Dairy Cows

Monitoring or accurately predicting manure quantities and nutrient concentrations is important for dairy farms facing strict environmental regulations. The objectives of this project were to determine the daily out-flow of manure nutrients from a free-stall barn using mass balance and to compare results with published excretion models. The project was conducted at the free-stall facility housing the lactating cow herd of the Virginia Tech Dairy Center in 2005. The herd consisted of 142 (±8.9) Holstein and Jersey cows with a mean body weight of 568 (±6.2) kg and average milk yield of 29.8 (±1.7) kg/d with 3.18% (±0.07) true protein and 3.81% (±0.13) milk fat on 18 sampling days. The intakes of dry matter (DM), N, and P were estimated from the formulated ration. Daily consumption averaged 21.7 (±0.27) kg of DM with 17.7% (±0.26) crude protein and 0.46% (±0.03) P. Approximately 110 (± 27.9) kg/d of sawdust was used as bedding; its contribution to manure flow was subtracted. The alleys in the free-stall barn were flushed every 6h with recycled wastewater, and the slurry was collected. On 18 sampling days the volumes and constituents of the flushwater and the flushed manure were determined for a 6-h flush cycle and extrapolated to daily values. Net daily flow of solids and nutrients in manure were calculated as the differences between masses in flushed slurry and flushwater. Nitrogen and P excretion were also calculated from dietary inputs and milk output. The flow was compared with the American Society of Agricultural Engineers’ (ASAE) standards. Each cow produced 5.80 kg/d of total solids (remainder after drying at 105°C). The ASAE standard predicted DM (remainder after drying at 60°C) excretion of 8.02 to 8.53 kg/d per cow. Recovery of P amounted to 74.8 g/d per cow. Overall, 102% of intake P was recovered; 75.1% in the manure outflow and 26.9% in milk. About 285 g/d and 148 g/d of N per cow were recaptured in manure and milk, respectively; 182 g/d was presumably volatilized. All models of N excretion appeared to underestimate N excretion. Volatilization rate of N amounted to 18.1%/h for the 6-h flush interval. Measured outflow of manure-P from the facility was similar to excretion predictions. Presentation of excreted solids as both total solids and DM is warranted. We conclude that using excretion prediction equations is useful for predicting excretion and outflow of P in a lactating cow facility, but N excretion predictions exhibited bias and have to be used prudently for predicting N outflow and N volatilization.

Effect of varying the distance of collectors below a sprinkler head and travel speed on measurements of mean water depth and uniformity for a linear move irrigation sprinkler system

A series of sprinkler irrigation uniformity tests were conducted to determine the effect of collector height and speed on applied water depth and uniformity from a linear move sprinkler irrigation system. Collectors, 102 mm in diameter and 200 mm in height, were set in the field according to the method outlined by ASAE [(2001). American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Test procedure for determining the uniformity of water distribution of center pivot and lateral move irrigation machines equipped with spray or sprinkler nozzles. ASAE Standards, ANSI/ASAE S436.1 MAR01] test procedures. The sprinkler system used in the study was a fixed plate sprinkler head with a 180° wetting pattern. Catch devices were placed to 300, 600, 900, and 1200 mm heights above ground and tested with 15 and 30 m h−1 speeds. The results indicated that mean sprinkler irrigation depths ranged from 45.5 to 51.4 mm and from 21.3 to 25.9 mm for 15 and 30 m h−1 system speeds, respectively. Mean coefficient of uniformity (CU) values for the same speeds ranged from 89.4% to 92.6% and 88.9% to 95.1%, respectively. Both irrigation water depth and CU measurements were significantly affected (p<0.05) by collector height but halving the irrigation system speed, apart from producing the expected doubling in water depth, produced no significant effects. Differences in collector heights could cause differences in irrigation depth and CU values of as high as 10 mm and 6%, respectively.

Caesium‐137‐derived erosion rates in an agricultural setting: the effects of model assumptions and management practices

AbstractSoil erosion rates at the National Soil Tilth Laboratory Deep Loess Research Station in southwest Iowa (USA) were determined from 137Cs inventories using a multi‐box numerical model that incorporates time‐dependent atmospheric 137Cs deposition. Nine sites along a downslope transect where 137Cs inventories were measured in 1974 by Spomer et al. (Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 1985, vol. 28, pp. 767–772) were revisited in 1998, allowing estimation of erosion over three time periods: 1954–1974, 1954–1998 and 1974–1998. Modelled 1954–1974 erosion rates (mean = 1·01 ± 0·41 g cm−2 a−1) were significantly higher (p &lt; 0·001, t‐test) than those reported by Spomer et al. (0·36 ± 0·10 g cm−2 a−1). A key reason for the significant difference is that our model used a monthly time step whereas Spomer et al. used a single 20‐year time step. As the model time step was increased from 1 month to 20 years, the erosion rate decreased by a factor of three to rates in general agreement with those reported by Spomer et al. This suggests that failing to account for temporal variations in atmospheric deposition and/or cultivation practices will result in substantially miscalculated erosion rates. Erosion rates over 1974–1998 were calculated by comparing our 1998 measured 137Cs inventory to the decay‐corrected 1974 inventories reported by Spomer et al. This comparison yielded erosion rates of −0·10 to 0·48 g cm−2 a−1 (mean = 0·19 ± 0·17 g cm−2 a−1), indicating that soil loss was reduced by 81 ± 52 per cent over 1974–1998 compared to the period 1954–1974. This estimate is in reasonable agreement with measurements of soil flux at the weir which indicate that soil loss has been reduced by 43 per cent since grass buffer strips were added to the field in 1991. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Current Developments in Seeders and Transplanters for Vegetable Crops

This article is a review of the current status in planting and transplanting equipment and practices for vegetable crops. A review of horticultural and agricultural engineering literature is supplemented by information from an informal survey of members of American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) committee PM-48, Fruit and Vegetable Production Engineering, and other engineers and horticulturists working in this field. Areas covered include precision seed metering, seed placement, and high-speed transplanting with automated plant handling.